15 NASA missions that changed our understanding of universe
In its 68 years of existence, NASA has achieved an epochal breakthrough in space exploration (Photo: Unsplash)
Since its founding in 1958, the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has launched hundreds of research programs.
Interesting Engineering highlights the missions that transformed science, engineering, and human history.
First steps into space and lunar exploration
NASA's large-scale programs were focused on proving that humans could live and work in zero gravity. Among them:
Project Mercury (1958–1963) — the first American crewed spaceflight program, which demonstrated that human survival and functionality in orbit were achievable.
In 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, and John Glenn made the first orbital flight a year later.
Project Gemini (1961–1966) served as a technological bridge to the lunar program. During these missions, scientists practiced orbital maneuvering, spacecraft docking, long-duration flights, and spacewalks.
Apollo 11 (1969) — the historic mission during which Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to set foot on the lunar surface.
Skylab (1973–1979) — America's first orbital space station, which confirmed the feasibility of long-term human habitation and work in space, laying the groundwork for the International Space Station.
Artemis I (2022) — an uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft and SLS rocket around the Moon, marking the beginning of a new era of human return to the Moon and preparations for future missions to Mars.
Exploration of Mars and the Solar System
NASA's robotic probes and rovers have uncovered new details about the structure of other planets and their moons. Key missions in this area include:
Viking 1 (1975–1982) — the first spacecraft to successfully land on the surface of Mars, capturing the first images of the Martian soil and conducting the first biological tests.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 (1977–present) — probes that provided detailed images of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Voyager 1 is currently the first human-made object to enter interstellar space.
Mars Pathfinder (1997) — the mission that delivered the first-ever rover, Sojourner, to Mars and demonstrated the effectiveness of relatively low-cost robotic exploration of the Red Planet.
Cassini-Huygens (1997–2017) — the spacecraft that conducted an in-depth study of Saturn and its moons, discovering water geysers on Enceladus and methane lakes on Titan.
Spirit and Opportunity (2003–2019) — twin rovers that gathered evidence of past liquid water on Mars. Notably, Opportunity operated for nearly 15 years instead of its planned 90 days.
Curiosity (2011–present) — a mobile laboratory that confirmed the existence of ancient water bodies on Mars that could have supported life.
Perseverance and Ingenuity (2020–present) — the rover searching for signs of ancient life on the Red Planet and collecting soil samples for return to Earth, along with the first helicopter to achieve controlled flight in the atmosphere of another planet.
Reusable spacecraft and deep space exploration
Astronomical observations and advances in transport systems have taken the study of the universe to a new level. These programs have made significant contributions to the development of the space industry:
Space Shuttle Program (1981–2011) — the reusable spacecraft program that carried out 135 missions, enabling satellite deployment, ISS construction, and telescope servicing.
Hubble Space Telescope (1990–present) — the iconic orbital telescope whose observations helped refine the age of the universe, confirm the existence of black holes, and discover thousands of new galaxies.
James Webb Space Telescope (2021–present) — the most powerful infrared telescope, studying the earliest galaxies after the Big Bang and analyzing the atmospheres of exoplanets.
